THE ULTIMATED READING STORE

John Kopplin © 2002

Just a few years after Pascal, the German Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (co-inventor with Newton of calculus) managed to build a four-function (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) calculator that he called the stepped reckoner because, instead of gears, it employed fluted drums having ten flutes arranged around their circumference in a stair-step fashion. Although the stepped reckoner employed the decimal number system (each drum had 10 flutes), Leibniz was the first to advocate use of the binary number system which is fundamental to the operation of modern computers. Leibniz is considered one of the greatest of the philosophers but he died poor and alone.

Leibniz’s Stepped Reckoner (have you ever heard “calculating” referred to as “reckoning”?)
In 1801 the Frenchman Joseph Marie Jacquard invented a power loom that could base its weave (and hence the design on the fabric) upon a pattern automatically read from punched wooden cards, held together in a long row by rope. Descendents of these punched cards have been in use ever since (remember the “hanging chad” from the Florida presidential ballots of the year 2000?).

Jacquard’s Loom showing the threads and the punched cards

By selecting particular cards for Jacquard’s loom you defined the woven pattern [photo © 2002 IEEE]

A close-up of a Jacquard card

This tapestry was woven by a Jacquard loom
Jacquard’s technology was a real boon to mill owners, but put many loom operators out of work. Angry mobs smashed Jacquard looms and once attacked Jacquard himself. History is full of examples of labor unrest following technological innovation yet most studies show that, overall, technology has actually increased the number of jobs.

By 1822 the English mathematician Charles Babbage was proposing a steam driven calculating machine the size of a room, which he called the Difference Engine. This machine would be able to compute tables of numbers, such as logarithm tables. He obtained government funding for this project due to the importance of numeric tables in ocean navigation. By promoting their commercial and military navies, the British government had managed to become the earth’s greatest empire. But in that time frame the British government was publishing a seven volume set of navigation tables which came with a companion volume of corrections which showed that the set had over 1000 numerical errors. It was hoped that Babbage’s machine could eliminate errors in these types of tables. But construction of Babbage’s Difference Engine proved exceedingly difficult and the project soon became the most expensive government funded project up to that point in English history. Ten years later the device was still nowhere near complete, acrimony abounded between all involved, and funding dried up. The device was never finished.

A small section of the type of mechanism employed in Babbage’s Difference Engine [photo © 2002 IEEE]
Babbage was not deterred, and by then was on to his next brainstorm, which he called the Analytic Engine. This device, large as a house and powered by 6 steam engines, would be more general purpose in nature because it would be programmable, thanks to the punched card technology of Jacquard. But it was Babbage who made an important intellectual leap regarding the punched cards. In the Jacquard loom, the presence or absence of each hole in the card physically allows a colored thread to pass or stops that thread (you can see this clearly in the earlier photo). Babbage saw that the pattern of holes could be used to represent an abstract idea such as a problem statement or the raw data required for that problem’s solution. Babbage saw that there was no requirement that the problem matter itself physically pass thru the holes.

Furthermore, Babbage realized that punched paper could be employed as a storage mechanism, holding computed numbers for future reference. Because of the connection to the Jacquard loom, Babbage called the two main parts of his Analytic Engine the “Store” and the “Mill”, as both terms are used in the weaving industry. The Store was where numbers were held and the Mill was where they were “woven” into new results. In a modern computer these same parts are called the memory unit and the central processing unit (CPU).

The Analytic Engine also had a key function that distinguishes computers from calculators: the conditional statement. A conditional statement allows a program to achieve different results each time it is run. Based on the conditional statement, the path of the program (that is, what statements are executed next) can be determined based upon a condition or situation that is detected at the very moment the program is running.

You have probably observed that a modern stoplight at an intersection between a busy street and a less busy street will leave the green light on the busy street until a car approaches on the less busy street. This type of street light is controlled by a computer program that can sense the approach of cars on the less busy street. That moment when the light changes from green to red is not fixed in the program but rather varies with each traffic situation. The conditional statement in the stoplight program would be something like, “if a car approaches on the less busy street and the more busy street has already enjoyed the green light for at least a minute then move the green light to the less busy street”. The conditional statement also allows a program to react to the results of its own calculations. An example would be the program that the I.R.S uses to detect tax fraud. This program first computes a person’s tax liability and then decides whether to alert the police based upon how that person’s tax payments compare to his obligations.

Babbage befriended Ada Byron, the daughter of the famous poet Lord Byron (Ada would later become the Countess Lady Lovelace by marriage). Though she was only 19, she was fascinated by Babbage’s ideas and thru letters and meetings with Babbage she learned enough about the design of the Analytic Engine to begin fashioning programs for the still unbuilt machine. While Babbage refused to publish his knowledge for another 30 years, Ada wrote a series of “Notes” wherein she detailed sequences of instructions she had prepared for the Analytic Engine. The Analytic Engine remained unbuilt (the British government refused to get involved with this one) but Ada earned her spot in history as the first computer programmer. Ada invented the subroutine and was the first to recognize the importance of looping. Babbage himself went on to invent the modern postal system, cowcatchers on trains, and the ophthalmoscope, which is still used today to treat the eye.

The next breakthrough occurred in America. The U.S. Constitution states that a census should be taken of all U.S. citizens every 10 years in order to determine the representation of the states in Congress. While the very first census of 1790 had only required 9 months, by 1880 the U.S. population had grown so much that the count for the 1880 census took 7.5 years. Automation was clearly needed for the next census. The census bureau offered a prize for an inventor to help with the 1890 census and this prize was won by Herman Hollerith, who proposed and then successfully adopted Jacquard’s punched cards for the purpose of computation.

Hollerith’s invention, known as the Hollerith desk, consisted of a card reader which sensed the holes in the cards, a gear driven mechanism which could count (using Pascal’s mechanism which we still see in car odometers), and a large wall of dial indicators (a car speedometer is a dial indicator) to display the results of the count.

An operator working at a Hollerith Desk like the one below

Preparation of punched cards for the U.S. census

A few Hollerith desks still exist today [photo courtesy The Computer Museum]
The patterns on Jacquard’s cards were determined when a tapestry was designed and then were not changed. Today, we would call this a read-only form of information storage. Hollerith had the insight to convert punched cards to what is today called a read/write technology. While riding a train, he observed that the conductor didn’t merely punch each ticket, but rather punched a particular pattern of holes whose positions indicated the approximate height, weight, eye color, etc. of the ticket owner. This was done to keep anyone else from picking up a discarded ticket and claiming it was his own (a train ticket did not lose all value when it was punched because the same ticket was used for each leg of a trip). Hollerith realized how useful it would be to punch (write) new cards based upon an analysis (reading) of some other set of cards. Complicated analyses, too involved to be accomplished during a single pass thru the cards, could be accomplished via multiple passes thru the cards using newly printed cards to remember the intermediate results. Unknown to Hollerith, Babbage had proposed this long before.

Hollerith’s technique was successful and the 1890 census was completed in only 3 years at a savings of 5 million dollars. Interesting aside: the reason that a person who removes inappropriate content from a book or movie is called a censor, as is a person who conducts a census, is that in Roman society the public official called the “censor” had both of these jobs.

Hollerith built a company, the Tabulating Machine Company which, after a few buyouts, eventually became International Business Machines, known today as IBM. IBM grew rapidly and punched cards became ubiquitous. Your gas bill would arrive each month with a punch card you had to return with your payment. This punch card recorded the particulars of your account: your name, address, gas usage, etc. (I imagine there were some “hackers” in these days who would alter the punch cards to change their bill). As another example, when you entered a toll way (a highway that collects a fee from each driver) you were given a punch card that recorded where you started and then when you exited from the toll way your fee was computed based upon the miles you drove. When you voted in an election the ballot you were handed was a punch card. The little pieces of paper that are punched out of the card are called “chad” and were thrown as confetti at weddings. Until recently all Social Security and other checks issued by the Federal government were actually punch cards. The check-out slip inside a library book was a punch card. Written on all these cards was a phrase as common as “close cover before striking”: “do not fold, spindle, or mutilate”. A spindle was an upright spike on the desk of an accounting clerk. As he completed processing each receipt he would impale it on this spike. When the spindle was full, he’d run a piece of string through the holes, tie up the bundle, and ship it off to the archives. You occasionally still see spindles at restaurant cash registers.

Two types of computer punch cards

Incidentally, the Hollerith census machine was the first machine to ever be featured on a magazine cover.

An Illustrated History of Computers
Part 1

John Kopplin © 2002

The first computers were people! That is, electronic computers (and the earlier mechanical computers) were given this name because they performed the work that had previously been assigned to people. “Computer” was originally a job title: it was used to describe those human beings (predominantly women) whose job it was to perform the repetitive calculations required to compute such things as navigational tables, tide charts, and planetary positions for astronomical almanacs. Imagine you had a job where hour after hour, day after day, you were to do nothing but compute multiplications. Boredom would quickly set in, leading to carelessness, leading to mistakes. And even on your best days you wouldn’t be producing answers very fast. Therefore, inventors have been searching for hundreds of years for a way to mechanize (that is, find a mechanism that can perform) this task.

This picture shows what were known as “counting tables” [photo courtesy IBM]

A typical computer operation back when computers were people.
The abacus was an early aid for mathematical computations. Its only value is that it aids the memory of the human performing the calculation. A skilled abacus operator can work on addition and subtraction problems at the speed of a person equipped with a hand calculator (multiplication and division are slower). The abacus is often wrongly attributed to China. In fact, the oldest surviving abacus was used in 300 B.C. by the Babylonians. The abacus is still in use today, principally in the far east. A modern abacus consists of rings that slide over rods, but the older one pictured below dates from the time when pebbles were used for counting (the word “calculus” comes from the Latin word for pebble).

A very old abacus

A more modern abacus. Note how the abacus is really just a representation of the human fingers: the 5 lower rings on each rod represent the 5 fingers and the 2 upper rings represent the 2 hands.
In 1617 an eccentric (some say mad) Scotsman named John Napier invented logarithms, which are a technology that allows multiplication to be performed via addition. The magic ingredient is the logarithm of each operand, which was originally obtained from a printed table. But Napier also invented an alternative to tables, where the logarithm values were carved on ivory sticks which are now called Napier’s Bones.

An original set of Napier’s Bones [photo courtesy IBM]

A more modern set of Napier’s Bones
Napier’s invention led directly to the slide rule, first built in England in 1632 and still in use in the 1960’s by the NASA engineers of the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs which landed men on the moon.

A slide rule
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) made drawings of gear-driven calculating machines but apparently never built any.

A Leonardo da Vinci drawing showing gears arranged for computing
The first gear-driven calculating machine to actually be built was probably the calculating clock, so named by its inventor, the German professor Wilhelm Schickard in 1623. This device got little publicity because Schickard died soon afterward in the bubonic plague.

Schickard’s Calculating Clock
In 1642 Blaise Pascal, at age 19, invented the Pascaline as an aid for his father who was a tax collector. Pascal built 50 of this gear-driven one-function calculator (it could only add) but couldn’t sell many because of their exorbitant cost and because they really weren’t that accurate (at that time it was not possible to fabricate gears with the required precision). Up until the present age when car dashboards went digital, the odometer portion of a car’s speedometer used the very same mechanism as the Pascaline to increment the next wheel after each full revolution of the prior wheel. Pascal was a child prodigy. At the age of 12, he was discovered doing his version of Euclid’s thirty-second proposition on the kitchen floor. Pascal went on to invent probability theory, the hydraulic press, and the syringe. Shown below is an 8 digit version of the Pascaline, and two views of a 6 digit version:

Pascal’s Pascaline [photo © 2002 IEEE]

A 6 digit model for those who couldn’t afford the 8 digit model

A Pascaline opened up so you can observe the gears and cylinders which rotated to display the numerical result

AUDIT REPORT

During the planning and conduct of the audit in Tubular Bells p/c, a number of audit risks are likely to be taken into account.

The Deputy Finance Director has been manager of the audit partner. Having known the approach of the audit firm, he is likely to conceal material facts necessary for the audit. Having worked with the audit partner that audits Tubular Bells accounts, the internal auditor would likely collude with the auditors thus affecting the reliability of the audit report on the financial statements. The fact that Tubular Bells has been assessed as medium to low risk should not make the audit team to reduce testing of both control systems and year end balances. Tests of details should always be done in an audit companies regardless of the riskness of the company. To mitigate this risk, the audit team will have to assign re- evaluated the numerical value of risk that has been attached to the firm and whether it is indeed in the brackets of medium to low risk. They can rely on analytical review techniques.

There could also be a possibility that the financial records of Tubular Bells have not been properly prepared thus exaggerating their turnover rates and profits. This has the effect on the financial statements as they would not reflect a true and fair view of the state of affairs of the company. To mitigate this risk the audit team should incorporate and audit program in their plan.

This audit program should entail testing of numerical continuity, clerical accuracy, authorization physical inspection etc. The aim would be to ensure that all recorded transactions are complete, occurred and were properly authorized.

The introduction of an on-line computer system for the UK manufacturing division is likely to cause certain risks. These include the unauthorized accessibility to the files containing inventory records or the fraudulent alterations of records. A user may alter a master file incorrectly and the erroneous alteration may not be checked by a second person.

In an inventory audit carried out by Tubular Bell’s internal auditors, it was found out that some inventories were misappropriated. The area of risk regarding stocks is that some of the stocks like the medical equipments are too small, portable and valuable. This can easily lead to pilferages and deterioration either intentional or accidental.

Also the number of items involves is very large and therefore verification problems are to be expected as far as existence and condition is concerned. The audit team should conduct its audit in a way to incorporate a stock- taking exercise especially for the affected areas.

On the other hand the Australian division intends to use a more aggressive position. This uses short- tem capital to finance long term projects. The classification of capital into short-term Tubular Bells p/c is faced with the various pasts of a multi-national corporation. Differences in interest rates across border arise due to the market’s expectations about future interest rates. To mitigate this risk with regard to variations in the price of input commodities the management ought to consider adjusting contract price to forward rates. They should not invoice using the spot rates. If a contract is being quoted in the home currency, the price in the home currency can be based on the forward rate of exchange rather that on the spot rate. This incorporates into the contract price the expected rise or fall in the exchange rates between the date the contract is designed and the settlement date.

Another area of risk that the audit team needs to take into account is that of quality control. The company may be supplying defective or low quality aviation electronic. This might have caused the plane to crash as opposed to the chief executive’s sentiments that the plane crashed due to the pilot’s error. Tubular Bells might be employing incompetent staff who are not conversant wit the specification of aviation electronic goods. There is also a risk in specializing in supplying electronic goods to only one customer as any defect will be wholly blamed on the supplier (Tubular Bells in this case). Additionally, if the aeroplane ceases its operations, this would adversely affect Tubular’s profitability. To mitigate this risk, the company should employ both competent staff and at the same time diversify its business to encompass more clients.

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Children tend to do well with schedules and routines. They like to know what to expect. It is comforting t have repetitive experiences. There are some things that will help them when learning new routines. Change is an important part of life. Help a child learn to embrace it.

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*Talk About Changes Before They Happen

Teachers tell students if they are planning to have a substitute. They want students to be prepared and act appropriately.

Parents should explain changes to a child and prepare them for something. Children who are informed tend to adjust better. It comes down to a child feeling secure enough about their situation to adapt.

*Rehearse New Behaviors

If a child is going to start school rehearse the routine the week before. Get up at the appropriate time. Eat breakfast a good breakfast. Get dressed and ready just as if it was a school day. If it is feasible walk to the school together. Explain that next week the child will stay at school and the parent will return home. Part of the rehearsal in learning the vocabulary associated with the new routine. Hearing the proper words to communicate. For example, if a child is going to begin soccer. Teach them words like goal, coach, referee, and team. If they are going to school remind them how to address teacher and friends. Give children the gift of words.

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Practice really does make perfect.

*Embrace Little Changes

Children like a plan. Little surprises during the day are fine. Children feel more secure when the unexpected is still contain within the routine. Lets take a look at some examples.

~Naps

Nap time is an important routine. The child may be able to adapt to a nap in a different location, but at the right time. They may be able to rest on the couch. They may except that they will me taking their nap at Grandma’s on Tuesday. (They probably won’t understand Tuesday, but they know it will happen.)

~Meals

Meal time is important. Many children have favorite foods and don’t stray far from them. Perhaps introduction of new foods could be introduced as part of a new healthy eating routine.

Dinner time is still at 5:30. Every evening there is now a “thank you bite”. Everyone at the table tries a bite of something different than the norm. The routine of dinner remains the same, but there is some thing new on the menu. This will teach them to try new things.

*Find Productive Ways to Deal with Stresses

Give a child tools to deal with frustration. Teach them to take a deep breath. Remind them that they can talk about things when they get home and together solutions will be found. Teach coping skills early, so they become a life long gift. If a child is stressed about a change of routine them, it is important they understand they can talk about the changes and how it made them feel.

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Q2. In urban sociology, we study human society in urban settings. What do we mean by the word urban? And to what extent does the urban setting shape the social life which occurs within it?

HOW URBAN SETTING SHAPE THE SOCIAL LIFE

Urban areas are characterized by a high population density with people from different cultures and therefore different norms, values and beliefs, the different cultures however intermarry to form a new form of social life where new beliefs and values are formed, this changes the people’s way of life in urban areas.

High standards of living can be associated with urban life where people live luxuriously as compared to other areas, the availability of various products and also the high purchasing power which is as a result of diverse opportunities of work in the urban areas of urban dwellers make it possible for them to buy luxuries.

Despite high levels of competition the city provides opportunities for social mobility especially in capitalist form of society, social mobility ensures that people can move from one income class to another through education, promotion or economic power, however social mobility that exist in the urban areas will lead to more conflicts among individuals who have different interest.

The high population size in the urban area creates an increase in differentiation among the urban dwellers, people are no longer attached to traditional norms, values and beliefs and this makes them to become immoral, this therefore creates a need for formal control mechanism, this has therefore led to the emergence of legal systems and the police. People in the urban areas therefore become immoral and engage in activities that they would have not engaged in if they were attached to traditional norms and values.

The urban areas are prone to increased insecurity due to increased crime rates, the urban areas have become insecure due to high levels of crime, the people therefore have formed institutions that aid in provision of security such as security organizations as a solution o the increased levels of crime, however this is a social problem that is caused by increased social inequality in the urban areas.

Congestion causes increased demand for social amenities such as hospitals and schools, also in urban areas there is increased pollution and environmental degradation which has rendered urban dwellers to be prone to diseases such as cancer and borne diseases, this has increased the level of income spent as hospital bills and health care.

CONCLUSION:

Despite the high levels of standards of living in the urban areas where people live in luxuriously there are various negative changes that develop in these areas, these include alienation, increased social inequality, increased crime rates, increased health hazards and the lack of a moral core. However there exist high possibilities of social mobility in urban areas due to more opportunities available in these areas.

Urban areas however act as areas of both economic and political centers, they serve different purposes and therefore they are all important in our society, the problems associated with them however should be socially addressed because they affect the people’s way of life in the urban areas.

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Heuristic refers to ways that assists in working or explaining a given difficulty, usually unofficial. It is mainly utilized for a technique that would give a more reasonable explanation to the best available response. They involve making well-informed deductions, instinctive ruling or use of logic. It involves use of the readily available information though slackly relevant to obtain solutions to human beings and machine problems.

The boss relied on anchoring and adjustments heuristic to conclude that the Volvo cars are not effective and efficient as they are poorly manufactured, hence his brother in-law Volvo car encountered machine operating problems. This heuristic explains the ordinary human probabilities to incline too much on certain information to make daily decisions. In this kind of heuristic, an individual uses one feature of given information, and then becomes inclined heavily to that feature to a point of bias. An individual only argues according to that feature regarding a certain machine or human being. In simple terms, an individual uses that feature to make conclusions on the condition of given type of machine in general. This kind of heuristic changes an individual view of a certain object or human being, despite the quality or condition in real life. For instance, the boss believes that the Volvo cars are not that good, despite the world recognition of the car as being of high quality. In a way, it affects his estimates or probabilities, as he only uses one case to generalize on the quality of all Volvo cars.

ANALYSIS:

In order, to convince the boss that the Volvo cars are the best kind of automobile to be bought, I intend to apply the availability heuristic to convince him. This kind of heuristic utilizes the easily available information to estimate the occurrence of a given occasion. For instance, I will use the available information about the Volvo and its brand of cars. For instance, I will utilize the same model of the Volvo car that his brother in-law had purchased to persuade him that though the engine broke down, this is rare case with the Volvo cars and that using a single incidence to make conclusions on the range of Volvo cars is not right.

I intend to provide him with the information about the Volvo Company and its range of the cars. This include Volvo is one of the maker of lavish models of vehicles including sport utility vehicles, convertibles and sedans, to squashed high class vans and sport cars. They have 2500 dealers spread globally in more than the 100 bazaar, with 60 percent of its sales originating from Europe, 30% from North America and 10% from the rest of the world. Their cars have a status of producing high safety cars with protection dashboard, rear-facing child seat with safety belts and their cars are fitted with side-impact protection system and whiplash protection system to protect travelers from side and front impacts of an accident.

In addition, their cars are fitted with personal car communicator to assist the owner check the cars security status, set the alarm and lock the doors. This feature is new to the car manufacturing industry with only Volvo cars having it. The cars are fitted with heartbeat sensor and automatic break signal to know whether there is anyone hiding in the vehicle and warn the motorist behind respectively.

The cars are fitted with roll control stability and roll over protection systems to maintain the safety of the travelers in case of car accident or rolling over. This ensures that maintain its stability even at high speed. In terms of fuel usage and speed, the vehicles are fitted with fuel saving gadgets or systems to avoid wastage of fuel. More so, the car engines are tested regularly before being offered for sale, this ensures that the customers get the best quality cars. In case, the car is found with technical problem, then it is immediately returned to the factory for fixing and the owner compensated immediately. This good will of the company has earned a good name to its worldwide loyal customers.

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Driving is one of the most enjoyable activities you will experience as well the most dangerous too. According to Insurance Institute of Highway Safety (IIHS) the statistics about teenage drivers aren’t good. The main reason for this teen crashes and mishap is lack of maturity and skills. Teens also show lack of discipline while following safety rules. Thus it became necessary for the teenagers to take driver education to learn the critical new skills associated with learning to drive depends on several factors, including life experience, self-confidence, parental and mentor guidance, and maturity.

It’s important for teenager to choose right driving schools that are certified by the state government and have authorized quality instructors to gain good knowledge to be safe on roads. There are many advantages in taking driver education instructors give you helpful advice about how to handle practice sessions and give updated knowledge of road security precautions and traffic laws.

The teen drivers are given temporary driver’s permit after completing their driver education .The state of Florida requires every new driver to complete a Traffic Law and Substance Abuse Education Course before being eligible to get their learner’s permit or driver’s license. This TLSAE course can also be done on the web. If you don’t have enough time to take this 4-Hour TLSAE course in traditional classroom you can take this course on the web from any where.

Our Online Florida Traffic Law And Substance Abuse Education Course is a convenient and affordable way to become a licensed driver. All of our Traffic Law and Substance Abuse Education Course are approved by the Department of Highway Safety and Motor Vehicles, which means that they satisfy all of the necessary requirements.

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If you happen to be an artistic type and you’d like to develop your talent, you may have heard of a few Art Schools that might be of interest. Don’t make the mistake of enrolling with any school or college without thoroughly researching your choice. Remember, you’ll be paying good money to attend and you want training that will pay off with a career. Consider the program, facilities, faculty and even alternatives like Photography Schools before making your final decision.

There comes a time in life where everyone is faced with the decision to pick a career. This can be a great opportunity, especially when you already know which activities are peaking your interest and what you are expecting from the future. You might consider furthering your education for the following reasons:

• Personal Achievement – If you spend a lot of time taking pictures, you may want to develop this passion and pursue a career in professional photography. In that case, it may be an excellent idea to check out Top Photography Schools. They can provide you with all the technical instruction and knowhow you need to succeed in the real, as well as the digital world.

• Higher Earnings – Architectural drafting and interior design, for example, are well paying professions always highly in demand. Architecture Schools offer excellent possibilities to expand your sense for creating inviting environments.

• Leadership – There is no greater challenge in today’s marketing industry than to take charge. Advertising is much more than composing a few pictures or slogans. It is a form of art, a powerful one that will inspire consumers to buy certain products. It is leadership that can be taught at Advertising Schools. They can offer integrated approach programs in marketing communications.

Choosing the college that is right for you is an important decision. It will be the framework for your entire future. Do not settle for less than the best, and follow your instincts when selecting a direction. Indeed, do not deny your feelings. Even if you have a deep interest in art you should take steps to improve your already existing skills. There are marvelous and easily accessible Online Art Schools are available to all.

Thriving art communities can be found wherever you go. They attract attention in major cities and also bring beauty to smaller neighborhoods. Art is appreciated everywhere. It helps us express our senses and reflects how we perceive things. Trying to imagine a world without art is impossible and individuals who feel the urge to create beautiful art should not wait any longer. If you are an artist you should enroll in one of the prominent Fine Art Schools available to you and develop your creativity. Our society needs more musical talent, motion picture producers, illustration designers, and theatrical experts, just to name a few. You see, artists are the foundation of our entertainment and without them our free time would be rather boring. These professions are as vital to mankind’s survival as any other. If you feel that one of these careers appeals to you, you should not hesitate any longer. Enroll now and follow your dream!

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Stepping into the classroom for the first time can be a nerve-racking experience, not just for students but for novice teachers as well. For some teachers this recurring albeit low-level anxiety is the single most detractive feature of what would otherwise be a near perfect job. But what’s the cause of all this stress?

In fact it all boils down to something teachers share in common with their students: the fear of grammar.

Strangely enough it’s often native English speakers who struggle the most to get to grips with all the grammar jargon required by the TEFL profession. This is because schools in Britain, America and other places whose first language is English cover very little grammar in their curricula. Non-native speakers who have learnt English by living in an English-speaking country will probably have similar problems.

In effect many EFL teachers eventually end up learning grammar on their feet in the classroom, since few teaching certificate courses have time to include a crash course in such an extensive area. For some it’s a challenge that they thrive on but most will admit that there’s nothing more dissatisfying than having to fudge an answer to a student’s question.

That’s where Notting Hill College’s Language Awareness Course comes in. This thirty-unit distance learning course has been designed specifically to meet the needs of both trainee and experienced teachers who feel that their English grammar knowledge is not up to scratch.

The course is exceptionally thorough, providing full coverage of the essential areas of English grammar and more. The course materials are exclusive to Notting Hill College and include the tailor-written 250 page NHC Language Awareness grammar reference book, which will stand teachers in good stead for the rest of their TEFL careers and is almost worth enrolling for in itself.

Thankfully, trainees are not left to wade through this vast albeit invaluable tome themselves, but are provided with extensive e-support by Notting Hill College’s experienced team. Moreover, as a distance learning package, trainees can complete the course at their leisure, whether before, after or during any other TEFL certificate programme.

Not for the first time Notting Hill College’s people-first ethos has led to their developing a teacher training solution that deals head-on with one of the pivotal issues facing EFL teachers. Now it’s up to you to start being part of that solution.

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Finally, a quality distance learning Masters programme that you can afford! Notting Hill College has teamed up with Pebble Hills University to offer you the Distance Learning Master of Arts in Teaching English as a Foreign or Second Language (MA TEFL / TESOL). Designed for practising TEFL teachers, the central philosophy behind the programme is that you, as a teacher, should have the opportunity to research and use in the classroom the concepts and theories you encounter during your course of study.

With this in mind, course materials are written for working teachers to complete in part-time, self-study mode over a period of 12-36 months, thereby enabling you to continue teaching, whilst gaining a professional qualification that will open doors all over the world.

A further advantage of the MA in TEFL/TESOL is that it allows you to gain credit for your previous training by transferring credits from NHC accredited course providers.

The programme is only offered in selected countries where we can provide comprehensive academic and administrative support to participants.

Phase one of the programme is the Notting Hill College TEFL certificate (6 credits). Alternative TEFL certificate programmes may be accepted upon approval. Fill out our Online Application Form to learn more www.school-of-teacher-training.co.uk.

Phase two of the programme is the Notting Hill College TESOL Diploma (Diploma in the Theories and Methodologies of TESOL) offered completely by distance learning (20 credits). The TESOL Diploma consists of four research-based modules in current topics in TESOL.

Phase three of the programme is the Notting Hill College Advanced TESOL Diploma offered completely by distance learning (4 credits). The Advanced TESOL Diploma covers the topics of Management, Evaluation and Research, Course Development, Origins of English and Integrated Topics in TESOL.

Phase four involves writing a 20,000 word dissertationworth 6 credits.

The MA in TEFL/TESOL is awarded on successful completion of all four phases.

Course structure

Part 1: Academic Section (Preliminary Master) worth a total of 30 Credits

Part 2: 20,000 word dissertation worth 6 credits

Syllabus Break-down

Part 1: Academic Section

Code

Credits

Fees (Distance Learning)

NHC Advanced TEFL Certificate

TTp02

6

£140

NHC Diploma in the Theory and Methodology of Teaching ESOL/EFL

TTp05

20

5 / module

£300

£ 75 / module

NHC Advanced Diploma in the Theory and Methodology of Teaching ESOL/EFL

TTp06

4

£1460

Part 2: Thesis

20,000 word dissertationon a relevant topic negotiated with a Notting Hill College supervisor

TTp07

6

Examples of Courses Offered: *Principles and Practices of Language Teaching; *Applied-linguistics; *Language Analysis 1 (Structure of Grammar); *Language Analysis 2 (Phonological System);*First Language Acquisition; *Second Language Acquisition; *Practicum; *Teaching of Reading; * Teaching of Writing; *Teaching of Speaking; *Lesson Planning; *Managing Disruptive Students; *Research and Thesis Writing; * Origin of English.

Read more: http://www.articlesbase.com/online-education-articles/master-of-arts-in-tefltesol-2261438.html#ixzz0mr96ePJw
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